Introduction
The book of Jonah is perhaps one of the most peculiar books in the Christian canon. It is a short narrative about a disobedient prophet and a compassionate God who saves sinners through judgement. Though it is short in length it is both large in scope and in its theological depth. In it, God’s mercy for those who are not His covenant people is beautifully displayed in a time before the cross and before the mystery of the Gospel is revealed. Jonah not only has theological depth, but also literary depth, as it is filled with beautiful parallelism, unique rhetorical devices, and staggering juxtaposition. The book of Jonah is a marvel that is far more than a simple Sunday school story about a cowardly man and a great fish. Rather it is the story of a rebellious prophet and a compassionate God who saves those who turn to Him in repentance. In order to fully grasp the depth and complexity of the book of Jonah an analysis of the book’s historical background, literary make and structure, theological themes, and place within the Canon is required in order to have a robust Biblical Theology of Jonah. In other words, to have a robust Biblical Theology of the book of Jonah an in-depth analysis and survey of the book’s historical background, literary features, theological themes, and place within the story of Scripture is essential to gain understanding of the theology of Jonah and to see how it fits in with the rest of Scripture. The foundation of which is the historical background of Jonah.
Historical Background
Firstly, to acquire a robust Biblical Theology of Jonah the historical background of the book must be explored, so that its contents may be understood properly. The book of Jonah was written to display the heart of God to the people of God, as He moves to save a pagan people that the Israelites despised. An Israelite reading this book would likely be shocked by its contents, as God calls an Israelite prophet to go and pronounce judgment to a pagan people who would eventually become one of Israel’s greatest enemies. The events of Jonah took place around 763 B.C., while the book itself was likely composed between 770 and 620 B.C.[1]
The authorship of Jonah is typically contested. However, the details of the story seem to indicate that whoever the author was had “insider” information regarding the various conversations that Jonah had with the sailors, the Ninevites, and God Himself. Additionally, it is hard to believe that someone other than Jonah knew what Jonah prayed in belly of the great fish (Jonah 3, NASB). If the story of Jonah was a tall-tale or a parable it would make sense for the author to know all the details of the story as he or she would have been the one who composed it. However, Jonah is not a fiction or a parable, it is a historical narrative that tells the true story of God and His rebellious prophet. Therefore, the author of Jonah is most likely Jonah himself or a contemporary who knew the story of Jonah well, as the author is aware of detailed conversations and events that occurred during Jonah’s journey. John MacArthur notes, “the autobiographical information revealed within its pages clearly points to Jonah as the author. The firsthand accounts of such unusual events and experiences would be best recounted from the hand of Jonah Himself.”[2] With Jonah as the author the story within the book becomes even more compelling, as Jonah is depicted as rebellious and unloving within it, while the book’s message is the compassion and mercy of God, which was the very reality that Jonah was then opposed to only to later display in the book of Jonah. It is his masterful display of God’s compassion that now requires literary analysis.
Literary Analysis
Political Setting
As aforementioned, the genre of Jonah is historical narrative. This historical narrative records the true story of God’s prophet Jonah being sent to preach judgement to the wicked people of Nineveh. The story is set during the reign of Jeroboam II in the middle-east. Politically it was a time of prosperity for the people of Israel. John MacArthur states that under the reign of Jeroboam II Israel was able to enlarge its borders.[3] However, despite Israel’s political prosperity the nation was suffering from spiritual “poverty.”[4] MacArthur also asserts, “Peacetime and wealth had made her [Israel] bankrupt spiritually, morally, and ethically.”[5] Israel’s current state is clearly reflected in Jonah’s disobedience to God’s commands, rebellion against God’s will, and hatred for the people of Nineveh, which was apparently an attitude of the nation of Israel as a whole. The political state of Assyria (the nation of which Nineveh is the capital) however, was one of weakness, as they had yet to arise to their full power which would be seen later in Biblical History.
Geographical Setting
Nineveh, the capital city of the Assyrian empire, is the central geographical location in the book of Jonah. In the first chapter Nineveh is described by God as “the great city” to which Jonah was being commissioned to cry out against, as their evil had “come up before” God (Jonah 1:1-2, NASB). In the third chapter God again describes Nineveh as the great city (3:2). Additionally, the reader is told that Nineveh was an “exceedingly great city,” referring to its size, and that it would take a three day walk for Jonah to preach through it (3-4). Nineveh is not only spoken of in Jonah but in several other places throughout Scripture. Genesis reveals that the city of Nineveh was founded by Noah’s grandson Nimrod (Genesis 10:6-12) and God’s prophet Nahum predicts its eventual destruction in His book. Nineveh is not a central location in the Old Testament, but certainly a significant one, that is marked by its evil and wickedness (Jonah 1:2, NASB).
While Nineveh is certainly the central location in the book of Jonah, it is not the only location. Pastor Mark Dever notes, “Jonah’s book is composed of four short chapters, and each chapter reflects a different setting. The first chapter is mostly at sea. The second chapter is set in the belly of a great fish. The third is set in the city of Nineveh, then the capital of the Assyrian Empire. And the fourth is set just outside of Nineveh.”[6] The setting-scene relationship speaks to the masterful literary structure of Jonah, as the story unfolds in four scene and in four primary locations. Additionally, the cities of Joppa and Tarshish also makes appearances. Tarshish was an extremely wealthy city known for its ships and trading. Robert B. Chisholm Jr. states, “Tarshish was named after one of Javan’s sons, who were the ancestors of the ‘maritime peoples’ referred to in Genesis 10:5.”[7] The geographical location of which is a topic of dispute. However, Chisholm notes, “Perhaps it should be identified with a Phoenician colony located in ancient Tartessus in southwest Spain.”[8]Joppa on the other hand was much less significant in terms of wealth in size. However, its theological significance is vast, as this is the same city where Peter visited Cornelius in Acts, which marked the beginning of the inclusion of Gentiles in the Church. In Jonah it is the port where God’s reluctant prophet resists God’s compassion for those outside of Israel, but in Acts it is where God moves through His faithful and outspoken Apostle to reach the very same people, the Gentiles.
Characters
Jonah’s key characters comprise a small list: God, Jonah, the nameless sailors and their captain, the Ninevites, and the king of Nineveh serve as the primary and secondary characters in the book of Jonah. However, despite Jonah’s small amount of characters it does not lack in character depth. In Jonah God is depicted as the sovereign, just, and compassionate God of the Hebrew people. Jonah refers to Him as the “God of heaven who made the sea and the dry land” (Jonah 1:9, NASB). In chapter four Jonah declares that God is gracious, compassionate, slow to Anger, and “abundant in loving-kindness” (4:2). Not only does Jonah reveal much about who God is but so does God’s actions in the book of Jonah. In chapter one God is depicted as just and vengeful, detesting what is evil (1:2). He is depicted as powerful, as the narrator declares that God “hurled a great wind on the sea” (1:4). The sovereignty of God is also displayed throughout the book as He appoints a great fish to swallow Jonah (1:17) and later to vomit him onto dry land (2:10). God’s mercy is clearly displayed when He relents from bringing calamity upon the Ninevites in response to their repentance (3:10). Finally, God’s wisdom is displayed in His use of an object lesson to question Jonah on why He should not be compassionate (4:5-11).
Little is known about Jonah, as He is only mentioned a few times in Scripture. According to Jonah 1:1 Jonah is the Son of Amittai. This fact is restated in the book of 2 Kings, which additionally reveals that Jonah was a prophet from Gath-hepher who prophesied during the reign of Jeroboam II (2 Kings 14:25). Jonah’s name in Hebrew literally means “dove.”[9] Other than these descriptors not much is known about Jonah other than what is seen in the book of Jonah, which depicts him as a rebellious and uncompassionate prophet.
The secondary characters serve an interesting purpose in the book of Jonah, as they are juxtaposed against the character of Jonah. The sailors and their captain respond to the Lord’s judgement in worship and sacrifice, which is juxtaposed against Jonah’s empty confession that he fears or worships the Lord (Jonah 1:16, NASB). Sinclair B. Ferguson beautifully states, “When we meet these men they are crying out to their gods (Jon. 1:5). But when we leave them offering a sacrifice to the Lord and making vows to serve him (Jon. 1:16).”[10] While the sailors worshiped, Jonah claimed to fear the Lord and yet chose inevitable death rather than repentance. This use of juxtaposition reflects the overall attitude of the nation of Israel, as they like Jonah time after time run from God and disobey Him. Meanwhile the Gentiles willingly turn from their sin and their gods to the one true God who forgives sin.
This juxtaposition is again seen in the response of the Ninevites to God’s pronouncement of judgement through Jonah. Jonah chapter three recounts that the people of Nineveh “believed in God,” fasted, and put on sackcloth (3:5). The king of Nineveh even issued a decree demanding that the people and the animals must not eat and must put on sackcloth (3:7-8). The king even recognizes that God may still not relent but repents regardless of God’s response (3:9). All the while Jonah went to the outskirts of the city to watch, wait, and see what God would do (4:5). He then declared his anger, his desire to die, and his reason for running from God, which was that he knew God would be compassionate toward the people of Nineveh (4:1-4). Again, the author of Jonah displays two opposing responses to God’s compassion and justice. However, the twist or irony of it is that God’s prophet is the one who responds wrongly, and the pagan people respond in repentance and sacrifice, which in many ways foreshadows Israel’s eventual rejection of the Gospel and the Gentiles overwhelming acceptance of it (Acts 28:23-31, NASB). The use of characters to highlight Jonah’s shortcomings and God’s compassion is just one example of the books amazing use of literary devices and unique literary structure.
Structure and Rhetorical Devices
Jonah contains unique parallelism between its four scenes or chapters. Chapters one and three parallel one another and chapter two and four parallel one another. Both chapters one and three begin with God commanding Jonah to “Arise” and go to Nineveh (Jonah 1:1-2, 3:1-2, NASB). In chapter one Jonah disobeys God, while in chapter three Jonah reluctantly obeys. Chapter one and chapter three follow Jonah’s actions and the reactions of Gentile peoples to God’s judgement, in both chapters the Gentiles respond positively to God’s judgement through worship, fear of God, fasting, and sacrifice (1:10-16, 3:5-9). Additionally, both chapters end with God acting in some way. In chapter one God appoints a fish to swallow Jonah, while in chapter three God relents from bringing calamity upon the Ninevites (1:17, 3:10).
The parallelism in chapters two and four are less obvious than the parallelism in chapters one and three. Chisholm states, “both chapters present a prayer of Jonah and focus on the prophet’s [Jonah] reaction the Lord’s intervention.”[11] Interestingly, Jonah’s reactions differ from one another. In chapter two he praises and thanks the Lord, while in chapter four he expresses his anger and distaste for all that has happened and the Lord’s compassion on the Ninevites. Chapter two ends with the Lord acting (in similar fashion to chapters one and three) by commanding the fish to vomit Jonah out onto dry land. Chapter four also ends with content from the Lord. However, instead of the Lord acting in some sovereign way, He speaks to Jonah and questions whether He should or should not have compassion on a people and their livestock (Jonah 4:9-11, NASB). The symmetry in the book of Jonah is striking and tells the story in a unique and powerful way. Its unique symmetry also provides a simple yet interesting template for the expositor to utilize Jonah in preaching and teaching.
The third chapter of Jonah presents one of the most unique literary features in the book. The chapter records Jonah’s prayer within the belly of the fish. Chisholm states, “The prayer takes the form of a thanksgiving song and utilizes stock terminology and idioms.”[12] He thanks the Lord and promises to fulfill his duty. Chisholm also notes that the prayer is severely lacking in repentance.[13] This stands out as all the pagan Gentiles in the story do repent when faced with God’s judgement, while God's own prophet does not repent even when judged. Chisholm further notes, “We expect a penitential psalm in which the prophet confesses his sins, but much to our surprise, he did not acknowledge his disobedience. He simply celebrated his deliverance, boasted of his superiority to the pagans, and made promises.”[14] From a literary standpoint the prayer in Jonah chapter three adds to the irony of the story, as God’s prophet continued in disobedience and fails to repent over his sinful actions, while both the sailors and the Ninevites repented immediately when God’s judgement was seen or announced. Jonah’s lack of repentance and continued disobedience is further proved in Jonah chapter four where Jonah persists in his rebellion and hatred.
Not only does Jonah chapter four prove the true condition of Jonah’s heart, but it also contains one of the most unique literary features in the book. In the book’s final conversation between Jonah and God, God uses a plant and a worm as an object lesson for Jonah (4:5-11). God causes a plant to grow to provide shade for Jonah, only to bring a worm along to eat the plan and cause it to die, which angers Jonah so much that he wishes to die. God then asks Jonah if He should not have compassion on the population of Nineveh, using Jonah’s feelings about the plant as a feature of His argument. The book ends with this question, causing the reader to think and ponder on God’s compassion for the lost. It is an effective and striking way to end the book, that causes the reader to think on what they have read and consider further the compassion of God.
Jonah in the New Testament
Jonah is mentioned several times in the Gospels by Jesus Christ Himself. Jonah is mentioned twice in Matthew (Matthew 12:38-42, 16:1-4, NASB), and once in Luke (Luke 11:29-32). All of which reference the “sign of Jonah” (Matthew 12:38-42, 16:1-4, Luke 11:29-32). Specifically, Luke 11:29-32 seems to expound the most on what the sign of Jonah is. Firstly, it must be noted that the sign of Jonah is used by Jesus as a direct response to the pleads of the people and the Pharisees for a sign from Jesus. To which Jesus responds, “no sign will be given to it but the sign of Jonah” (Luke 11:29). Jesus declares that He will be a sign to the current generation just as Jonah was a sign to the Ninevites, and that He is the greater Jonah (11:29-32). In Matthew Jesus draws a line between Jonah’s three days in the belly of the fish and His coming three days in the grave (Matthew 12:39-40). Furthermore, Jesus states that the Ninevites who repented will judge the current generation (referring to the Pharisees), as they repented at the preaching of Jonah (12:41). With all this said, the question must be raised; “What exactly is the sign of Jonah?” The parallel between Jonah’s time in the belly of the fish and Christ’s time in the grave, but this is not the “sign of Jonah.” T. D. Alexander argues, “it is likely that Matthew saw in the ‘sign of Jonah’ a picture of God’s mercy being extended to the Gentiles and divine judgment coming upon the present unbelieving generation.”[15] This interpretation of the “sign of Jonah” corresponds with Jesus’ words best, as He condemns the current generation and references the repentance of the Ninevites. Therefore the “sign of Jonah” refers to current unbelieving generation who desire to see signs and to the extension of salvation to the Gentiles.
The concept of salvation going unto the Gentiles is further developed in the New Testament. In the final chapter of Acts, it is recorded that the Apostle Paul arrives in Rome and gathers the leading Jews in the area to explain to them the Kingdom of God (Acts 28:11-25, NASB). Sadly, the Jews reject Paul’s message. Consequently, the Apostle declares that the “salvation of God has been sent to the Gentiles; they will also listen” (Acts 28:28). The Jews respond by leaving and disputing his words amongst themselves (Acts 28:29). The chosen people of God reject and resist the mercy of God while the Gentiles openly receive it. Acts twenty-eight displays Israel’s rejection of God and His Gospel, and further displays God’s salvation being extended to the nations. Similarly, Paul writes that the mystery of the Gospel that has been revealed is that the Gentiles “are fellow heirs and fellow members of the body, and fellow partakers of the promise in Christ Jesus through the Gospel” (Ephesians 3:6). Despite Israel’s rejection of the Gospel, the salvation of God extends forward and turns to the Gentiles. This is a beautiful reality of the Gospel, it is the mystery that has been revealed.
Theology and Themes
Justice and Compassion
The primary theological theme and message of Jonah is God’s compassion for people and how it is brought about through His justice to the Ninevites. In the first chapter God brings a storm upon Jonah, the ship, and its crew on account of his disobedience (Jonah 1:4-9). The ship’s crew respond to God’s judgement on Jonah with fear and sacrifice, thus modeling a right response to God’s judgement, which is lacking in Jonah (1:15). In chapter three Jonah proclaims to the Ninevites God’s coming judgement on them (3:4), as he was told to do (1:1-2, 3:1-2). The people respond in repentance (3:5-9), and God relents from His judgement, showing them mercy and compassion, which was brought about by His judgement through repentance (3:10). Then finally, chapter four emphasizes the theme most heavily. Jonah expresses his distaste for God’s compassion, stating that it was the reason he fled from God’s call in the first place (4:1-4). He says that God is gracious, compassionate, slow to anger, abundant in love, and relents from calamity, and that that is why he fled, as he knew God’s character and the inevitable outcome of his calling (4:2). In the final verse of chapter four, God asks Jonah why He should not have compassion on so many people and their animals, and it is upon this question that the book ends, as the question further drives home the point of God’s compassion for the lost (4:11). In Jonah God is a loving and compassionate God who shows mercy on even the worst of sinners. His mercy comes in the wake of repentance that is brought about by an awareness of the reality of God’s judgement and one’s own sin. Jonah teaches the reader that God has compassion on even the worst of sinners. It gloriously displays God’s mercy and salvation through judgement.
Sovereignty
Another major theological theme in Jonah is the sovereignty of God. God is sovereign and completely in control of the events in the story. For example, in chapter one God uses a storm to get a hold of Jonah (1:4). Later in chapter one God appoints a great fish to swallow Jonah and house him safely under the water until he surrenders to the will of God. Then, in chapter three, God commands the fish to vomit Jonah onto dry land after Jonah had submitted to the will of God (2:10). Finally, in the fourth chapter God causes a plant to grow to provide shade for Jonah and a worm to eat the plant to teach Jonah a lesson (4:5-8). In Jonah God is clearly ruling and reigning over all of creation, which includes nature and animals. God’s sovereignty is also seen in how He accomplishes that which He pleases. God commands Jonah to go and preach judgement to Nineveh, and despite Jonah’s resistance God carries him there in the belly of a fish, much like a mother dragging a resistant child to their pediatrician. Thus, highlighting the reality that God is totally sovereign, and that man does indeed possess freewill. God sovereignly accomplishes what He intends in His universe, despite man’s disobedience.
Conclusion
The book of Jonah is a fascinating book that has much to say about God and mankind and does so in a unique and meaningful way. The book is a historical narrative that follows the story of God and His rebellious prophet Jonah. God commands Jonah to proclaim His coming judgement on the Ninevites. Then Jonah, knowing God is compassionate and will forgive the Ninevites should they repent, disobeys and feels for another city. Regardless of Jonah’s disobedience, God in His sovereignty uses a storm and a fish to get Jonah back on track, which results in God showing compassion to the Ninevites, much to Jonah’s displeasure. Jonah grows angry and wishes to die as a result of God’s compassion for the Ninevites. The book ends with God asking Jonah why He should not have compassion for so many people and their animals. Jonah, who is the likely author of Jonah, tells this story in a unique way, by employing parallelism, irony, and a striking rhetorical question at the end of the book. All of which communicate to Jonah’s audience and modern readers that God is compassionate and merciful to the lost. However, God’s compassion does not override the reality of God’s justice, as salvation in Jonah is brought about through judgement by way of repentance. God is just, loving, and compassionate, and will show mercy to those who repent of their sins.
[1] Mark Dever, The Message of the Old Testament, (Wheaton: Crossway, 2006), 770. [2] MacArthur, John, The MacArthur Bible Commentary, (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2005),1006. [3] Ibid,1006. [4] Ibid. [5] Ibid. [6] Mark Dever, The Message of the Old Testament, (Wheaton: Crossway, 2006), 770. [7] Chisholm, Robert B., Jr., Handbook on the Prophets, (Grand Rapids: Baker Academics, 2002), 409. [8] Ibid, 410. [9] MacArthur, John, The MacArthur Bible Commentary, (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2005), 1008. [10] Sinclair B. Ferguson, Man Overboard: The Story of Jonah, (Edinburgh: Banner of Truth, 2008), 17. [11] Chisholm, Robert B., Jr., Handbook on the Prophets, (Grand Rapids: Baker Academics, 2002), 409. [12] Ibid, 412. [13] Ibid. [14] Ibid. [15] T. Desmond Alexander and Brian S. Rosner eds., New Dictionary of Biblical Theology, (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2000), 606.
